Basic UNIX commands 

  Files

• ls --- lists your files
  ls -l --- lists your files in 'long format', which contains lots of useful information, e.g. the exact size of the file, who owns the file and who has the right to look at it, and when it was last modified.
  ls -a --- lists all files, including the ones whose filenames begin in a dot, which you do not always want to see.
  There are many more options, for example to list files by size, by date, recursively etc.
• more filename --- shows the first part of a file, just as much as will fit on one screen. Just hit the space bar to see more or q to quit. You can use /pattern to search for a pattern.
• emacs filename --- is an editor that lets you create and edit a file. See the emacs page.
• mv filename1 filename2 --- moves a file (i.e. gives it a different name, or moves it into a different directory (see below)
• cp filename1 filename2 --- copies a file
• rm filename --- removes a file. It is wise to use the option rm -i, which will ask you for confirmation before actually deleting anything. You can make this your default by making an alias in your .cshrc file.
• diff filename1 filename2 --- compares files, and shows where they differ
• wc filename --- tells you how many lines, words, and characters there are in a file
• chmod options filename --- lets you change the read, write, and execute permissions on your files. The default is that only you can look at them and change them, but you may sometimes want to change these permissions. For example, chmod o+r filename will make the file readable for everyone, and chmod o-r filename will make it unreadable for others again. Note that for someone to be able to actually look at the file the directories it is in need to be at least executable. See help protection for more details.
• File Compression
  • gzip filename --- compresses files, so that they take up much less space. Usually text files compress to about half their original size, but it depends very much on the size of the file and the nature of the contents. There are other tools for this purpose, too (e.g. compress), but gzip usually gives the highest compression rate. Gzip produces files with the ending '.gz' appended to the original filename.
  • gunzip filename --- uncompresses files compressed by gzip.
  • gzcat filename --- lets you look at a gzipped file without actually having to gunzip it (same as gunzip -c). You can even print it directly, using gzcat filename | lpr
• printing
  • lpr filename --- print. Use the -P option to specify the printer name if you want to use a printer other than your default printer. For example, if you want to print double-sided, use 'lpr -Pvalkyr-d', or if you're at CSLI, you may want to use 'lpr -Pcord115-d'. See 'help printers' for more information about printers and their locations.
  • lpq --- check out the printer queue, e.g. to get the number needed for removal, or to see how many other files will be printed before yours will come out
  • lprm jobnumber --- remove something from the printer queue. You can find the job number by using lpq. Theoretically you also have to specify a printer name, but this isn't necessary as long as you use your default printer in the department.
  • genscript --- converts plain text files into postscript for printing, and gives you some options for formatting. Consider making an alias like alias ecop 'genscript -2 -r \!* | lpr -h -Pvalkyr' to print two pages on one piece of paper.
  • dvips filename --- print .dvi files (i.e. files produced by LaTeX). You can use dviselect to print only selected pages. See the LaTeX page for more information about how to save paper when printing drafts.

Directories

Directories, like folders on a Macintosh, are used to group files together in a hierarchical structure.

• mkdir dirname --- make a new directory
• cd dirname --- change directory. You basically 'go' to another directory, and you will see the files in that directory when you do 'ls'. You always start out in your 'home directory', and you can get back there by typing 'cd' without arguments. 'cd ..' will get you one level up from your current position. You don't have to walk along step by step - you can make big leaps or avoid walking around by specifying pathnames.
• pwd --- tells you where you currently are.

Finding things

• ff --- find files anywhere on the system. This can be extremely useful if you've forgotten in which directory you put a file, but do remember the name. In fact, if you use ff -p you don't even need the full name, just the beginning. This can also be useful for finding other things on the system, e.g. documentation.
• grep string filename(s) --- looks for the string in the files. This can be useful a lot of purposes, e.g. finding the right file among many, figuring out which is the right version of something, and even doing serious corpus work. grep comes in several varieties (grep, egrep, and fgrep) and has a lot of very flexible options. Check out the man pages if this sounds good to you.

About other people

• w --- tells you who's logged in, and what they're doing. Especially useful: the 'idle' part. This allows you to see whether they're actually sitting there typing away at their keyboards right at the moment.
• who --- tells you who's logged on, and where they're coming from. Useful if you're looking for someone who's actually physically in the same building as you, or in some other particular location.
• finger username --- gives you lots of information about that user, e.g. when they last read their mail and whether they're logged in. Often people put other practical information, such as phone numbers and addresses, in a file called .plan. This information is also displayed by 'finger'.
• last -1 username --- tells you when the user last logged on and off and from where. Without any options, last will give you a list of everyone's logins.
• talk username --- lets you have a (typed) conversation with another user
• write username --- lets you exchange one-line messages with another user
• elm --- lets you send e-mail messages to people around the world (and, of course, read them). It's not the only mailer you can use, but the one we recommend. See the elm page, and find out about the departmental mailing lists (which you can also find in /user/linguistics/helpfile).

About your (electronic) self

• whoami --- returns your username. Sounds useless, but isn't. You may need to find out who it is who forgot to log out somewhere, and make sure *you* have logged out.
• finger & .plan files
  of course you can finger yourself, too. That can be useful e.g. as a quick check whether you got new mail. Try to create a useful .plan file soon. Look at other people's .plan files for ideas. The file needs to be readable for everyone in order to be visible through 'finger'. Do 'chmod a+r .plan' if necessary. You should realize that this information is accessible from anywhere in the world, not just to other people on turing.
• passwd --- lets you change your password, which you should do regularly (at least once a year). See the LRB guide and/or look at help password.
• ps -u yourusername --- lists your processes. Contains lots of information about them, including the process ID, which you need if you have to kill a process. Normally, when you have been kicked out of a dialin session or have otherwise managed to get yourself disconnected abruptly, this list will contain the processes you need to kill. Those may include the shell (tcsh or whatever you're using), and anything you were running, for example emacs or elm. Be careful not to kill your current shell - the one with the number closer to the one of the ps command you're currently running. But if it happens, don't panic. Just try again :) If you're using an X-display you may have to kill some X processes before you can start them again. These will show only when you use ps -efl, because they're root processes.
• kill PID --- kills (ends) the processes with the ID you gave. This works only for your own processes, of course. Get the ID by using ps. If the process doesn't 'die' properly, use the option -9. But attempt without that option first, because it doesn't give the process a chance to finish possibly important business before dying. You may need to kill processes for example if your modem connection was interrupted and you didn't get logged out properly, which sometimes happens.
• quota -v --- show what your disk quota is (i.e. how much space you have to store files), how much you're actually using, and in case you've exceeded your quota (which you'll be given an automatic warning about by the system) how much time you have left to sort them out (by deleting or gzipping some, or moving them to your own computer).
• du filename --- shows the disk usage of the files and directories in filename (without argument the current directory is used). du -s gives only a total.
• last yourusername --- lists your last logins. Can be a useful memory aid for when you were where, how long you've been working for, and keeping track of your phonebill if you're making a non-local phonecall for dialling in.

Connecting to the outside world

• nn --- allows you to read news. It will first let you read the news local to turing, and then the remote news. If you want to read only the local or remote news, you can use nnl or nnr, respectively. To learn more about nn type nn, then \tty{:man}, then \tty{=.*}, then \tty{Z}, then hit the space bar to step through the manual. Or look at the man page. Or check out the hypertext nn FAQ - probably the easiest and most fun way to go.
• rlogin hostname --- lets you connect to a remote host
• telnet hostname --- also lets you connect to a remote host. Use rlogin whenever possible.
• ftp hostname --- lets you download files from a remote host which is set up as an ftp-server. This is a common method for exchanging academic papers and drafts. If you need to make a paper of yours available in this way, you can (temporarily) put a copy in /user/ftp/pub/TMP. For more permanent solutions, ask Emma. The most important commands within ftp are get for getting files from the remote machine, and put for putting them there (mget and mput let you specify more than one file at once). Sounds straightforward, but be sure not to confuse the two, especially when your physical location doesn't correspond to the direction of the ftp connection you're making. ftp just overwrites files with the same filename. If you're transferring anything other than ASCII text, use binary mode.
• lynx --- lets you browse the web from an ordinary terminal. Of course you can see only the text, not the pictures. You can type any URL as an argument to the G command. When you're doing this from any Stanford host you can leave out the .stanford.edu part of the URL when connecting to Stanford URLs. Type H at any time to learn more about lynx, and Q to exit.

Miscellaneous tools

• webster word --- looks up the word in an electronic version of Webster's dictionary and returns the definition(s)
• date --- shows the current date and time.
• cal --- shows a calendar of the current month. Use e.g., 'cal 10 1995' to get that for October 95, or 'cal 1995' to get the whole year.

 

 

BASIC COMPUTER ENGINEERING UNIT 1

¢Unit 1

¢Computer Basics

¢Operation System

¢Introduction

 

¢Use of computer in daily life

• —Calculation (time saving, accuracy, reduce complexity)
• —Entertainment
• —Medical Diagnosis
• —Weather forecasting
• —Payment of bills
• —Banking
• —Manufacturing products like automobiles, shoes etc.
• —Animation
• —Space research
• —Creation of blueprints for houses

 

¢Definitions of Computer

¢A computer is electronic device that can accept store and process information to produce the required result.

¢Computer is a device that can solve any mathematical operation and it operates on information or data.

¢Computer can be defined in terms of its functions. It can

—Accept data

—Store data

—Process data as desired

—Retrieve the stored data as and when required

—Print the result in desired format

 

¢Features of Computer

• ¢Speed
• ¢Accuracy
• ¢Storage
• ¢Diligence
• ¢Versatility
• ¢Power of Remembering
• ¢Capabilities of computer
• ¢Processes information very fast
• ¢Accurate results
• ¢Stores large amount of data and information
• ¢Restore or bring back any works
• ¢Automatics
• ¢More then one things at the same time
• ¢Improved and upgraded
• ¢Limitations of computer
• ¢Intelligence
• ¢Feelings
• ¢Can not remove error itself
• ¢Can not work without human intervention
• ¢GIGO (Garbage in Garbage out)

¢Generation of Computer

• ¢First Generation (1942-1955)
• ¢Second Generation (1955-1964)
• ¢Third Generation (1964-1975)
• ¢Fourth Generation (1975-1990)
• ¢Fifth Generation (1990 – till date)

¢First Generation (1942-1955)

1. Main Features

• ¢Major Innovation -Vacuum tubes
• ¢Main Memory- Punched cards
• ¢Input Output devices- punched cards and papers
• ¢Languages- Low level machine language
• ¢Operating system- No operating system, human operates to set switches
• ¢Size- Main frame for example ENIAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC

1. Advantages

• ¢Vacuum tube were the only electronic components available during those days.
• ¢Vacuum tube technology made possible the advent of electronic digital computers.
• ¢These computers were the fastest calculating devices of their time.
• ¢They could perform computations in milliseconds.

1. Disadvantage

• ¢Too heavy in size
• ¢Unreliable
• ¢They produced large amount of heat
• ¢Air conditioning required
• ¢Possibility to frequent hardware failures
• ¢Constant maintenance required
• ¢Not portable
• ¢Commercial production was difficult and costly

¢Second Generation (1955-1964)

1. Main Features

• ¢Major Innovation – Transistors as main component
• ¢Main Memory- RAM and ROM
• ¢External storage- Magnetic tapes and Magnetic Disk
• ¢Input output Devices- Magnetic tapes and Magnetic Disk.
• ¢Languages- Assembly language, some high level languages for Example BASIC, COBOL, FORTRAN
• ¢Operating System- Human handles punched card
• ¢Size- Main frame for example IBM-1401, NCR-300, IBM-600 etc

1. Advantage

• ¢Smaller in size as compared to first generation computer
• ¢More reliable
• ¢Less heat generated
• ¢These computer were able to reduce computational times from milliseconds to microseconds
• ¢Less possibility to hardware failure
• ¢Better portability
• ¢Wider commercial use

1. Disadvantage

• ¢Air conditioning still required
• ¢Frequent maintenance required
• ¢Manual assembly of individual components into a functioning unit was required
• ¢Commercial production was difficult and costly.

¢Third Generation (1964-1975)

(Based on integrated circuits)

1. Main features

• ¢Major Innovation Integrated circuit (ICs) as basic electronic component
• ¢Main Memory – PROM and DRAM
• ¢External Storage- Improve disk (Floppy disk)
• ¢Input and output Devices- Keyboard for input, Monitor for output
• ¢Languages- More high level languages
• ¢Operating System- Complete operating system were introduced
• ¢Size- Mini, for example: IBM SYSTEM/360, ICH-360, HONEY WELL-316 etc.

1. Advantage

• ¢Smaller in size as compared to previous generation computers
• ¢Even more reliable than second- generation computers
• ¢Lower heat generated than second generation computers
• ¢Able to reduce computational times from microseconds to nanoseconds
• ¢Maintenance cost is low because hardware failures are rare.
• ¢Easily portable
• ¢Widely used for various commercial applications all over the world
• ¢Less power requirements than previous generation computers.

1. Disadvantage

• ¢Air conditioning required in many cases.
• ¢Highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacture of IC chips

¢Fourth Generation (1975-1990)

1. Main Features

• ¢Major Innovation – LSIC and VLSIC (Micro Processor)
• ¢Main Memory-EPROM and SRAM
• ¢External Storage- Floppy Disk and Hard Disk
• ¢Input and output Devices- Monitor for output
• ¢Languages- High Level languages and Application software
• ¢Operating system-MS DOS and PC-DOS
• ¢Size- Micro computer e.g. IBM-PC, Apple Macintosh etc.

1. \Advantage

• ¢Low cost
• ¢High Speed
• ¢Large memory
• ¢Small size
• ¢Less power consumption
• ¢Floppy disk is used as storage device. Semi conductor internal memory
• ¢Improve in software
• ¢Hardware failure is negligible
• ¢Heat generated is negligible
• ¢Cheapest among all generation

1. Disadvantage

• ¢Highly sophisticated technology is required for the manufacture of chip.

¢Fifth Generation (1990 - till date)

(ULSIC)

1. Main Features

• ¢Major Innovations- ULSIC (Ultra Large scale Integrated circuit)
• ¢Main Memory-EEPROM, SIMM and DIMM
• ¢External Storage- Modified magnetic, Optical disks and flesh drive.
• ¢Input/ Output Devices- Keyboard, Pointing Device, Scanner as input and monitor as main output.
• ¢Language- AI expert systems.
• ¢Operating system- GUI based like Windows XP, Windows 7 etc.
• ¢Size- Very small

1. Advantage

• ¢Very large storage capacity
• ¢Long bit processor builds
• ¢Artificial Intelligence Language developed 

¢Classification of Computer

• Classification based on Application/ computational method
• Classification based on purpose
• Classification based on size and capability

¢Classification based on Application

• ¢Analog computer
• ¢Digital computer
• ¢Hybrid computers

Analog Computer

• ¢This type of computer is worked on quantity like in petrol pump, Weather forecasting , temperature etc.
• ¢Process data input in a continuous form.
• ¢Data such as voltage, resistance or temperature is represented in the computer.
• ¢Analog signals are used for working.

1. Advantage

• ¢Analog computers carried out measurement by a few single purpose devices. So they are offers low cost.

Digital computer

• ¢General computer works on 1 and 0.
• ¢It gives accurate result because this computer uses digital signals for working.
• ¢They can count, and accept numbers and letters through various input devices.
• ¢The input devices convert data into electronic pulses and perform arithmetical operations.

1. Advantage

• ¢Digital computers give result any desired level of accuracy.
• ¢Most suitable for business application

Hybrid Computer

• ¢It is a combination of analog and digital computer.
• ¢Computer works on both analog and digital signals.
• ¢It can convert analog signals to digital and digital to analog.
• ¢Example MODEM 

Classification based on Purpose

¢General Purpose computer

—Is a normal computer that is used everywhere.

—This type of computer can do programming, calculation, accounting work or painting work.

—Generally used in homes, schools and colleges.

—Example - Digital computer

¢Special Purpose computer

—This computer is designed according to special tasks like for weather forecasting, research or to make a film in photo studio.

 

Classification Based on size and Capability

¢Micro Computer

¢Mini Computer

¢Mainframe Computer

¢Super Computer

¢Micro Computer

¢Mini Computer

¢Mainframe computer

¢Super computer

 

Types of Personal computer

¢Desktop

¢Laptop

¢Notebook

¢Palmtop

¢Handheld computer(PDA Personal Digital Computer)

¢Tablet PCs

¢Workstation

¢Tablet PC

 

Computer Operation

1. —Input
2. —Storage
3. —Processing
4. —Control
5. —Output

Computer Organization

1. Input Unit

¢The input unit takes data from us to the computer in an organized manner for processing.

 

1. Storage Unit

¢Storage unit provides space for storing data and instructions in computer.

¢All the data and instructions are stored here before and after processing.

¢Intermediate results of processing are also stored here.

 

1. Central Processing Unit 

¢A central processing unit controls the execution of programs and performs the calculations.

—Manipulating the data like word processing letter.

—Writing, sorting, editing, makes catalog of data.

—Converting data of one form into another

—Communicating data to far off distances.

—Storing the data temporarily and retrieving it as and when required.

—CPU does every thing in the form of binary language

 

1. Arithmetic and Logical Unit (ALU)

¢Is used to perform arithmetic and logical operation.

¢ALU takes data from memory unit and returns information to memory unit.

¢ALU used a number of registers and accumulators for short term storage of characters while doing calculations or computations.

 

1. Control Unit (CU)

¢Determines the sequence in which computer programs and instructions are executed.

¢Registers

¢Registers are temporary storage units within the CPU.

¢Memory Address Register (MAR)

¢Memory Buffer Register (MBR)

¢Program Counter (PC)

¢Instruction Register (IR)

¢Accumulator  

BUS architecture

¢A set of parallel conductors which allow the flow of instructions  and data between devices.

1. ¢Data bus
2. ¢Address bus
3. ¢Control bus

Memory

1. Types of memory

1. ¢SRAM and DRAM
2. ¢Read Only Memory (ROM)
3. ¢Programmable ROM
4. ¢EPROM
5. ¢EEPROM

¢Secondary memory
¢Magnetic tape
¢Hard Disk
¢Floppy Disk
—3.5 Inch (1.44 MB) and 5.25 Inch (1.2 MB)

¢Optical Disk

—CD-ROM (Compact Disk Read Only Memory)

—Write Once Read Many (WORM)

—Erasable optical disk

—Digital Video Disk (DVD)

—Zip drive

¢USB Flash Drive

¢Magnetic Tape

¢Hard Drive

¢Physical Disk Structure

¢Logical Block Addressing

¢Platter Geometry and Zoned-Bit Recording

¢Disk Drive Performance: Seek Time

¢Time taken to position the read/write head

¢Lower the seek time, the faster the I/O operation

¢Seek time specifications
include:

—Full stroke

—Average

—Track-to-track

¢Disk Drive Performance: Rotational Speed/Latency

¢The time taken by platter to rotate and position the data under the R/W head

¢Depends on the rotation speed of the spindle

¢Average rotational latency

—One-half of the time taken for a full rotation

—Appx. 5.5 ms for 5400-rpm drive

—Appx. 2.0 ms for 15000-rpm drive

¢

¢Floppy Disk

¢3.5 inch – 1.44 MB

¢5.25 inch – 1.2 MB

¢Optical Disk

¢CD-ROM

¢WORM

¢Erasable optical disk

¢DVD

¢Zip drive (100 MB)

¢USB Flush Drive

¢Universal Serial Bus

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